Cannabis information
Foundational knowledge on the plant, its effects and the risks.
Introduction
Cannabis (hemp) has been used as a crop for thousands of years — for ropes, fabrics, paper or oils. The plant also has a long history of medicinal and ritual use, for example for pain management, epilepsy or inflammation.
As an intoxicant, traditional use focuses on the flowers of the female hemp plant, hashish (resin extracts) produced from them, and cannabis oils. Cannabis is the most widely used illegal substance worldwide — and in Switzerland.
Figures
- In a representative survey in 2022, around 8% of the Swiss population aged 15–64 had used cannabis in the past 12 months.
- Around 4% reported having used cannabis in the past 30 days and are therefore considered regular users.
- Extrapolated, this corresponds to around 222,000 people in Switzerland.
- Use is significantly more common among men and young people.
Effects
THC binds to cannabinoid receptors located mainly in the brain. These receptors regulate functions such as memory, time perception, hunger, coordination and movement, and are directly affected by cannabis use.
Cannabis contains over 400 constituents. Around 100 of these are cannabinoids, which are responsible for the pharmacological and psychoactive effects. Cannabinoids are chemical compounds that are produced either by the plant itself (phytocannabinoids) or by the human body (endocannabinoids). They act via the endocannabinoid system, the body’s own signalling system, which is involved in regulating mood, pain, sleep, immune function and much more.
Among the best known and most thoroughly researched cannabinoids are:
THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
Primarily responsible for the psychoactive effects of cannabis. THC binds strongly to CB1 receptors in the brain and produces euphoria, altered perception and relaxation, but can also trigger anxiety or panic.
CBN (cannabinol)
CBN is mildly psychoactive but significantly weaker than THC. It is being studied for possible sleep-promoting and anti-inflammatory properties. CBN can form during storage or heating through the breakdown of THC.
CBD (cannabidiol)
Non-psychoactive and now well researched. CBD influences the effect of THC, has neuroprotective and antipsychotic effects, and is used therapeutically for certain forms of epilepsy. It is the cannabinoid with the broadest clinical evidence and can attenuate the anxiety-inducing effects of THC.
CBG (cannabigerol)
Non-psychoactive and considered a precursor of many other cannabinoids: in the plant, both THC and CBD are formed from CBG. CBG is medically promising, for example in research on inflammatory bowel disease, glaucoma and certain cancers. However, clinical evidence in humans is still limited.
Terpenes
Terpenes are aromatic compounds responsible for the characteristic smell and taste of cannabis. They occur widely in nature, for example in lavender, citrus fruits or pine needles. In the cannabis plant they help to protect against pests and attract pollinators. To date, more than 200 different terpenes have been identified in cannabis; their composition varies by strain, cultivation conditions and processing. Recent research suggests that terpenes not only shape sensory characteristics, but may also significantly influence the pharmacological effects of cannabis by modulating the activity of cannabinoids. Although clinical evidence is still limited, the terpene profile of a product is increasingly seen as relevant to the quality of its effects.
Among the most common terpenes in cannabis are:
Myrcene
The most common terpene in cannabis, with an earthy, musky smell. Animal studies suggest possible pain-relieving and anti-inflammatory properties.
Limonene
Gives cannabis a fresh, citrus-like scent. It is being studied for mood-lifting, antifungal and antimicrobial properties.
Linalool
Known from lavender, it gives cannabis a floral note. It is associated with sedative and anxiety-reducing properties.
Caryophyllene (beta-caryophyllene)
Has a spicy, peppery smell. It is the only terpene that binds directly to cannabinoid receptors (CB2) and is being studied for anti-inflammatory effects.
The interplay of terpenes with cannabinoids is known as the entourage effect: the hypothesis that constituents work together differently than they would individually. The evidence for this so far comes mainly from animal and laboratory studies; clinical evidence in humans is largely lacking.
Flavonoids
Flavonoids are secondary plant compounds found in almost all plants, from fruits and vegetables to tea and red wine. Around 20 different flavonoids have been identified in the cannabis plant to date. Some of these are cannabis-specific and are called cannflavins. Flavonoids contribute to the pigmentation of the plant and protect it from ultraviolet radiation and pathogens. Although flavonoids in cannabis are far less researched than cannabinoids or terpenes, there is growing evidence that they have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties and may therefore contribute to the overall effect profile of the plant. The cannabis-specific cannflavins in particular are increasingly the focus of pharmacological research.
Among the most important flavonoids in cannabis are:
Cannflavin A and cannflavin B
So far only identified in the cannabis plant. Early laboratory studies from the 1980s suggested strong anti-inflammatory properties. Clinical studies in humans are still pending.
Quercetin
One of the most widespread flavonoids in the plant world, and also present in cannabis. It is being studied for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.
Apigenin
Known from chamomile. It is studied in connection with anxiety-reducing and sedative effects.
Luteolin
Studied for neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, although evidence in humans is still limited.
Research on flavonoids in cannabis is still in its early stages. Most findings come from laboratory studies; clinical data are largely lacking. In addition, classic consumption methods such as smoking or vaporising can alter or break down flavonoids through heat. Swiss Cannabis Research supports comprehensive research into all constituents of the cannabis plant in order to build a complete, scientifically grounded picture.
Because of the complex composition of cannabis, many mechanisms of action and risks have not yet been fully clarified. For this reason, cannabis is still used cautiously in medicine.
In addition to product composition and dosage, the effects of cannabis depend heavily on individual factors, current mental and physical state, the environment, and the form of consumption.
Typical psychological effects
Euphoria, heightened senses, intensified emotions, calm, altered sense of space and time.
Typical physical effects
Reddening of the eyes, dry mouth, blood-pressure changes, increased heart rate, muscle relaxation, fatigue, increased appetite.
Risks
Acute risks
Psychological
Cannabis can impair concentration and memory and slow reaction times. Altered perception of space and time can lead to misjudgements and incorrect responses. Psychological overload, confusion, and states of anxiety, panic or delusion can occur. There is also a risk of substance-induced acute psychosis.
Physical
Possible physical effects include nausea, vomiting, circulatory problems, excessive hunger, feeling cold, severe fatigue, trembling, movement disorders and dizziness. Because the toxicity of natural cannabis products is low, the risk of severe poisoning is low. With synthetic cannabinoids, however, this risk is considerably increased.
Long-term risks
Psychological
Frequent cannabis use can lead to the following symptoms: impairment of short-term memory, loss of motivation and interest, reduced activity, altered perception of reality, and psychotic symptoms. Psychological dependence can develop. When use is abruptly stopped, symptoms such as increased sweating, hot and cold flushes, loss of appetite, sleep problems and irritability may occur. When cannabis is mixed with tobacco, there is also a risk of nicotine dependence. With corresponding genetic predisposition, frequent cannabis use can favour or accelerate the onset of an underlying schizophrenia.
Physical
Long-term use — especially when smoked — increases the risk of respiratory complaints such as bronchitis or inflammation of the trachea and lungs. Mixed use with tobacco adds tobacco-specific risks such as cancer of the larynx or lungs. Because cannabis smoke is often inhaled more deeply and held in the lungs longer than cigarette smoke, higher amounts of harmful substances such as carbon monoxide and tar enter the airways. There is currently insufficient scientific evidence on the long-term risks of e-liquids.